Weapons and military affairs

Military affairs during the princely times reflected a structure based on princely retinues, town or rural militias, and mercenaries. The retinues consisted of professional warriors who were heavily armed horsemen and swordsmen, spearmen, or archers. Although the militia was less professional, it constituted the main bulk of the army and was composed of foot soldiers. The army used various weapons, including spears, swords, axes, and bows, as well as protective equipment such as helmets, chain mail, plate armour, and shields.

The archaeological research in the territory of the chronicle towns has discovered a considerable number of artifacts that represent the weapons of princely times, including axes, spearheads and arrowheads, maces, war flails, and swords.

The main bulk of ordinary soldiers and militiamen were armed with spears and battle axes – weapons that were cheaper and more available than swords. Common were wide-blade bearded axes, and axe hammers – axes, in which the back side of the butt was completed with a hammer.

Swords are the rarest weapons of the princely times, found in the territory of the chronicle towns. Tales and legends present the sword as a specific symbol of warriors. It was used by the infantry and cavalry of the prince’s retinue and boyar regiments.

The primary and most important ranged weapons for long-distance fighting were a bow and arrows. There was no battle in the princely times that didn’t involve archers. It is believed that each soldier of the prince’s army could shoot a bow.

The additional types of weapons used by a horseman – maces and war flails – were also employed; these were introduced under the influence of nomadic steppe tribes.

The archaeological findings include bronze and iron maces with various head forms, such as spherical ones with spikes, cube-shaped ones with spikes, and cube-shaped ones with cut corners.

Maces were used in close combat, when one had to make a sudden and unexpected blow in any direction. Using a 200-300 gram mace, a direct blow could knock out and incapacitate even a warrior in protective armour.

A war flail (eye-bolt), a strike weapon of different sizes, most often was a bronze, iron, or bone item, resembling a drop. A war flail was attached to the strap, the other end of which was wound around the wrist or attached to the wooden handle. Since ancient times, the eye-bolt has been known as a folk remedy, and sometimes, a robber’s weapon. It was easy to hide and could be used for self-protection on travels.